By Apala Egan

Based on an eyewitness account of life in royal harems, these stories describe the very human interaction between men and women in this milieu. They highlight power play, disinheritance and the threat of assault which are perennial concerns for women. 

This form of life existed throughout history in many parts of the world, including Asia, Africa and among the Aztecs and Incas in the Americas. It may still exist in some regions of the globe. In Europe, polygamy was prevalent among the Vikings. Among European royalty and aristocracy, although plural marriages did not exist, kings and noblemen typically had mistresses.

When European men began colonizing various parts of the world, most of them adopted the local customs. During the time period of the late eighteenth to the early nineteenth centuries, General Sir David Ochterlony, a Scottish gentleman, was the official British Resident at Delhi. He thoroughly embraced the Indo-Persian culture of the Mughals. He was reputed to have thirteen Indian wives; in Indian parlance they were referred to as bibis which means wives in Urdu. The British authorities viewed them as concubines. Every evening, he used to take all of his wives on a promenade around the walls of the Red Fort, each on the back of her own elephant.

Sir John Shore, the British Governor General of Bengal from 1793 to 1798 had an English wife with whom he had a number of children, as well as an Indian bibi in Bengal with whom he had several children shortly after he arrived in India some years earlier.

When the Englishmen returned to England after their long sojourn in the East, sometimes they made provisions for their Indian mistresses and families, but more often than not, they abandoned them and the children they had fathered. Upon their return to Britain, the men, in many instances, married Englishwomen decades younger.

Recent research has shown that Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States, kept a slave woman thirty years younger named Sally Hemings as his concubine or mistress and that she bore him several children. As a matter of note, nearly all tobacco or cotton plantation owners in America kept African or mixed-race slave women as their mistresses.

In Louisiana and other French and Spanish colonies, the custom of plaçage existed. This was where men of European ancestry cohabited with Native American or African women, and in some cases, these relationships may have been long term. Nevertheless, these men always married fellow White women, but kept the women of color in separate establishments. 

Thus, there is indeed a hidden world that has existed throughout history where the voices of women, whether in harems, plantations or colonies, went unheard.

Therefore, these fictional narratives set in Rajasthan, based on impressions of an eyewitness, gives voice to the voiceless, and create an elegant tapestry amidst the backdrop of Rajput grandeur and chivalry.

The author, Jyotirmoyee Devi Sen, was born in the kingdom of Jaipur in 1894, during the time of the British Raj in India. Her grandfather, who had emigrated there from Bengal, rose to the position of dewan, or prime minister, to the Maharaja of Jaipur. The lives of the queens and concubines in the royal harems made a deep impression on young Sen. Educated at home by private tutors, she was ten years old when her marriage was arranged, to a young lawyer, Kiran Chandra Sen, from Guptipara, Bengal. She moved into his home during her mid-teens, as was the custom, but tragedy struck within a few years: Her husband died in the influenza pandemic of 1918. Widowed at the age of twenty-five and with six children, she returned to her parents’ extended household.

Compelled to follow the strictures imposed on widows by the dictates of Brahmanical Hinduism, she mothballed her sumptuous silk and cotton saris in exchange for stark white, wore no jewelry, and eschewed meat and fish. The diet of a Bengali Hindu widow was that of a strict vegetarian. Regardless of age, widows were deemed asexual beings and remained lifelong celibates. She recalls in her Atmajibani, a memoir, “This sorrow was not just of separation . . . it seemed as if I had been reborn in a world of cast-offs.”

Despite the restrictions, or perhaps because of them, she found solace in devouring books in her grandfather’s library. She spoke Bengali, Hindi, and English. When a grand-uncle gave her John Stuart Mill’s The Subjection of Women, this book, among others, made her question a woman’s lot in patriarchal societies.

Traditionally in India, moveable wealth such as jewelry was given to daughters, and immoveable assets such as buildings, a plot of farmland, or a small business, was given to sons. Female infanticide, a likely consequence of the dowry practice as well as other beliefs, has occurred on occasions through the centuries.

During the nineteenth century in Bengal, leading men of society began questioning some of the pernicious customs. Rammohun Roy along with Swami Vivekananda and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar among others, spearheaded major religious and social reform movements, while delving into the rich spiritual heritage of their land. This period is referred to as the Bengal or Indian Renaissance and was a time of great intellectual, social and spiritual ferment. In this milieu, some families, while still adhering to the custom of early betrothal, encouraged the education of their daughters at the hands of private tutors, as was the case with the author.

These ideas spread to other parts of India and influenced those who began the independence struggle against the British at a later date. For instance, Mahatma Gandhi sought to include all people in his nonviolent movement and particularly encouraged women to join. When his wife passed away, he founded a charity in her name devoted to helping women and children.

In recent decades, however, according to Elisabeth Bumiller in her book May You Be the Mother of a Hundred Sons (1990), as India opened up its economy to foreign products and markets, a rise in consumerism took place. The types of gifts that men’s families demanded for dowries were typically electronic gadgets and appliances, as well as outright cash. Extortion and even murders of new brides occurred, as upon remarriage a man could receive additional dowry. 

Jyotirmoyee Devi Sen’s writings are in Bengali and span the twentieth century. Her five-volume set has been published by Dey’s Publishing Company, Calcutta, a leading publisher in the Bengali language.

She won the prestigious Rabindra Puraskar award for Bengali writing in 1973. Her work is part of the Women’s Studies curriculum at Jadavpur University, Calcutta, India.

The stories should be viewed in the context of human history and that of women, in particular. A brief overview is provided below, from the introduction to the book which contains fifteen bibliographical references on women’s history.

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To many ancient peoples, the earth was the source of sustenance. The belief in the sacredness of life-giving water at the sources of rivers and springs began in prehistory. Greek, Roman, Celtic and Baltic tales speak of female spiritual figures connected with water. Thus, many ancient cultures believed in the Feminine Principle and had a deep regard for nature as a creator of life. Beautiful pieces of pottery have been discovered by archeologists in Anatolia, Turkey and in parts of Europe. Invasions by nomadic groups led to the destruction of some of these societies.

Some societies escaped the path of invasions for a while, due to their location. There were indeed ancient civilizations which worshipped the Goddess and lived in harmony with nature. One such example is Crete, also referred to as Minoan Crete after King Minos. Archeologists discovered an advanced culture with well-organized cities, palaces, villas and granaries. The frescoes and carvings were fine and delicate and drew their inspiration from the environment. Images of warfare tended to be absent in their artwork, and men and women lived in harmony while honoring the earth and reaping its bounties.

Around that time, another example would be that of the Harappan civilization in the Indian subcontinent that extends from the northwest all the way down to Gujarat. Large, meticulously planned cities with homes and buildings and an elaborate drainage system existed. The people were skilled metal workers as the jewelry and artifacts indicate. According to archeologists, they also worshipped a Mother Goddess and lived in harmony with their surroundings.

In certain regions of the world and at different times, women of wisdom and learning have thrived. Around three thousand years ago in the Indian subcontinent, a woman philosopher named Maitreyi contributed hymns to the Rig Veda, a sacred text. In Tibet, Machig Lapdron is one of the most renowned and beloved of Tibetan mystics. Born about a thousand years ago, she showed extraordinary intelligence as a child and her parents encouraged her education. She went for further learning at a monastery and a whole body of teachings is credited to her.

With the spread of warfare in various parts of the world, and a patriarchal form of existence, the practice of plural marriages arose for political and social reasons. The Bible mentions that King Solomon had wives and concubines; in Europe among the royalty throughout history, kings routinely kept mistresses. It is in this context that we need to view the author’s stories; the writer, on a number of occasions, had the opportunity to visit the royal palaces with her family.

Violence also arose against women in certain patriarchal belief systems. The old woman-centered spiritual traditions celebrating nature, traditional healing and creativity were deemed as evil. The witch hunt of the 15th to the 18th centuries conducted by the Christian Church in Europe led to the mass murder of countless women. Those who were traditional healers, and poor country women, if single or widowed, were particularly vulnerable. In Brahmanical Hinduism over the centuries, the immolation of widows from certain upper castes and classes, regardless of age, occurred. This particular practice was defined as sati but was abolished during the Indian Renaissance of the nineteenth century.

With the ascendance of male-dominated cultures, some women were relegated to the role of entertainers. In ancient Greece, hetaerae were women who were trained in music, dance and speech, and provided entertainment for men. In Japan, the role of the geisha was similar, but more secluded. In historic India, courtesans were talented dancers and singers, and performed for wealthy men.

A famous example is the courtesan, Amrapali, who lived about two and half thousand years ago in the Indian subcontinent. Noted for her beauty, with long black hair, large eyes and glowing skin, she was born in the town of Vesali, in the kingdom of Magadha. She became skilled in the performing arts and gained renown as a very beautiful and accomplished courtesan. She, however, felt prey to anxiety regarding the fleeting nature of her looks.

She learned about the Buddha’s visit to her town and invited him for a meal. Upon meeting him and hearing his sermons, she decided to become a nun. She composed pieces that are recorded in the Therigatha.

She says, “Once my hair was beautiful, adorned with gold, fragrant and soft, well-plaited. Now, because of old age, it has fallen out. There is no error in the words of the speaker of truth.” In another section, she says, “Once my body was beautiful, like a burnished sheet of gold. Now, because of old age, it is covered with fine wrinkles. There is no error in the words of the speaker of truth.”

In ancient Greece, some young girls captured in battle were chosen to become hetaerae if they were beautiful; sometimes, impoverished parents might also sell their good-looking daughters. Likewise, in the writer’s stories, poor village folk might try to sell or give their daughters to the palace.

During the age of empires, where women’s roles may have been somewhat circumscribed, ladies of royalty and nobility were great patrons of the arts and architecture. Queen Devi, wife of Emperor Ashoka, built the famed Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh, India, and founded a monastery there over two thousand years ago. The exquisite carvings on the gates and pillars show details of the Buddha’s life as well as that of ordinary folk. Her daughter, Sanghamitra, and son, Mahendra, went to Sri Lanka to spread his teachings.

Virupaksha Temple, also known as Lokeshwara Temple, in Karnataka, India, was built over a thousand years ago by Queen Lokamahadevi. Carved out of red sandstone, stories from the Hindu epics are etched on the walls, pillars, and niches.

Rani Rashmoni, a woman of noble birth, built the elaborate Dakshineswar Kali Temple in Bengal, India, around the middle of the nineteenth century.

In Europe, Marie Antoinette, queen of France in the eighteenth century, supported women artists such as Elisabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun for her skill in painting portraits. Madame de Pompadour, mistress to King Louis XV of France, helped shape artistic taste in 18th-century France. In the field of interior design, that era is known as the rococo period where the focus of décor was more delicate, light and graceful.

Philanthropy was another area where women excelled, even in societies where their public role was limited. In Japan, Lady Takeko Kujo founded Asoka Hospital, one of Japan’s first modern medical centers. She died in Tokyo after contracting an illness during her work in the city’s slums following a major earthquake.

Rajput men, the author states in her memoirs, were chivalrous and considered it a mark of honor to help their behen-beti (sisters and daughters) and this generosity extended to all women. The royal government provided food baskets to those especially hard-hit, such as widows and their families.

The writer’s stories and memoirs describe royal women as being patrons of the arts. They commissioned work from local artisans and supported their own dance troupes. A descendant of Keshub Chandra Sen, a key figure in this era, married the Maharaja of Jaipur and became the famed Maharani Gayatri Devi who founded schools for girls in the kingdom.

Down the ages women have attempted to express themselves through the arts. Depending on the era and location, they may have faced challenges. Mary Cassat, born in America in mid-nineteenth century, blazed a trail as an artist during a time when most women of her background were confined to their homes. Some English writers, such as Mary Ann Evans, had to write under a male pen name: George Eliot. Jyotirmoyee Devi Sen is among the earlier women writers of modern Bengal, when most women were not allowed educational opportunities.

In translating the stories, I have delved deeply into the history and culture of that period and have attempted to show what the author intended. In addition, I have visited historic sites in Rajasthan for research purposes.

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All the translated stories have been published in literary journals and magazines: nine out of ten in the United States and one in Turkey. They include The Missouri Review, South Carolina Review, Catamaran Literary Reader, Ellery Queen Mystery Magazine, Xavier Review, Saint Anne’s Review, the J Journal, Talking River and the Istanbul Review.

The contributors to these journals and magazine have won the National Book Award, the Pulitzer Prize, MacArthur Foundation “Genius” awards, the Nobel Prize, the Pushcart Prize and the Yale Younger Poets Award.

In today’s world, men of power can and do exploit women in subordinate positions. In Hollywood, the “Me Too” movement highlighted the sexual exploitation of young actresses. Domestic violence occurs too, with alarming frequency worldwide. These stories therefore, are timeless.

Major universities have ordered the book including Columbia University and the University of Illinois in the United States, and Oxford University, England.

A brief description of a few of the stories in the book is given below.

“The Mistress Wife” is where a bored housewife, married to a wealthy businessman, seeks the attention of the king about whom she has daydreamed ever since she was a teenager. The affair proceeds to her delight, but one day her lover wants to meet her teenaged daughter.

In “Beneath the Aravalli Hills,” a rural family has more than enough daughters to marry off. The local folk see visitors from the palace promenading in the village. One night, two girls vanish from the hamlet. They do not leave alone, their fathers are with them. The men return a week later, without the girls.

In “The Courtesan’s Tale,” a young woman escapes domestic violence and returns to her parent’s home. Her brothers and mother try to send her back to her marital abode but to no avail. They hatch a scheme whereby she enters service as a maid at a palace, with the expectation that she is to return to her husband in the near future. Her beauty catches the eye of the aging monarch.

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